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2 3 2 Metacognitive Listening Awareness and Strategies（第1页）

2.3.2metacognitivelisteningawarenessandstrategiesthissectionfirstintroducesmethodsthatstudieshaveusedtoinvestigatemetacognitivelisteningawarenessandstrategies.thenitreportsstudiesofmetacognitivelisteningawareness-raising.finallythissectionreviewsresearchinmetacognitivelisteningstrategytraining.

2.3.2.1methodstoinvestigatemetacognitivelisteningawarenessandstrategies

thescopeoflisteningstrategyresearchhasrecentlyexpandedtoemphasizelearners'metacognitiveknowledge.listenersareaskedtoexplicitlyreporttheirperceptionsaboutthemselves，theirunderstandingoflisteningdemands，theircognitivegoals，theirapproachtolisteningtasks，andtheirlisteningstrategies.toelicitlearners'metacognitiveknowledgeaboutlistening，variousprocedureshavebeenused，mostcommonlydiaries（goh，1997），interviews（goh，2002a），andquestionnaires（goh，2002b;vandergrift，2002&2005a）.resultsofthesestudieshaveshownthatl2learnerspossessknowledgeaboutlisteningprocess，albeittovaryingdegrees，andthatthisknowledgeappearstobelinkedtolisteningabilities.

onecommonmethodthatresearchershaveusedtoassesslearners'metacognitiveawarenessinlisteningistheanalysisofdiaries.goh（1997）administeredoneoftheearlieststudiesexaminingmetacognitiveawarenessofl2listenersthroughdiaries.fortyadultchineseesllearnersinsingaporewereaskedtokeepadiaryfortenweeksabouttheirlisteningstudy，i.e.，theirreflectionsonwhattheydidtounderstandbetterandhowtheypracticedtheirlisteningafterclass.goharguedthatkeepingadiaryprovidedtherightstimulusforstudentstoreflectontheirlistening.

inadditiontosuchqualitativeanalysisoftextsasdiaries，questionnaireshavealsobeenused.vandergrift（2005a）usedan18-itemquestionnairetoassessstudents'metacognitiveawarenessofthelisteningprocessesandstrategies.participantsratedtheextenttowhichtheiteminthequestionnairedescribedtheiractualuseofeachstrategyonascalerangingfrom1to5.ahighscoreindicatedstrongagreementwiththestatementoftheitehowever，resultsofthestudywerelimitedbecausethequestionnaireusedinthestudywasnotsufficientlycomprehensive（18itemsonly）andhadnotbeensubjectedtorigorousvalidationprocedures.

tomakeupfortheinadequacyoftheinstrument，vandergriftetal.（2006）developedthemetacognitiveawarenesslisteningquestionnaire（malq）toassessl2learners'awarenessandperceiveduseoflisteningstrategies.tovalidatethemalq，vandergriftandhiscolleaguesconductedanexploratoryandaconfirmatoryfactoranalysiswithtwolargeanddifferentsamplesoflanguagelearners.basedonflavell's（1979）theoreticalmodelofmetacognition，themalqconsistsof21itemsrelatedtofivemetacognitivefactors:problemsolving，planning-evaluation，mentaltranslation，personknowledgeanddirectedattention.table4showsthestrategiesineachofthefivedistinctmetacognitivefactorsbasedonvandergriftetal.（2006，p.462）.participantsratedtheextenttowhichtheitemsinthequestionnairedescribedtheirperceptionandactualuseofstrategiesonascalerangingfrom1to6.ahighscoreindicatedstrongagreementwiththestatementoftheite

themalqhasbeenusedextensivelytomeasurechangesinlisteners'metacognitiveawareness（e.g.，mareschal，2007;o'bryan&hegelheimer，2009;vandergrift&tafaghodtari，2010），andthequestionnairecanbeadministeredretrospectively，i.e.immediatelyafteralisteningtask，oratanytimeduringalisteningcourse，dependingonitspurpose.inadditiontobeingaresearchinstrument，thisquestionnairecanalsobeusedasateachingtoolforraisinglearners'awarenessaboutl2listening，aswasinthestudybycoskun（2010）.

table4metacognitivestrategiesbythefivefactorsinthemalq

（source:vandergriftetal.，2006，p.462）

2.3.2.2metacognitivelisteningawarenessraisingstudies

raisinglearners'metacognitiveawarenessaboutlisteninghasbeenadvocatedforalongtimenow（e.g.，mendelsohn，1994）.esleflteachersareadvisedtohelptheirstudentstodevelopmetacognitivelisteningawareness.giventheimportanceofmetacognitiveawarenessinsuccessfullistening，researchersbegantoinvestigatetheeffectofraisinglearners'awarenessonlisteningcomprehension.severalrecentstudieshaveshownthatmetacognitiveknowledgecanbeincreasedthroughclassroominstruction（e.g.，vandergrift，2002&2003b）orpeer-peerdialogue（cross，2010）.

vandergriftinvestigatedtheeffectofastrategy-basedapproachonstudentawarenessofthelisteningprocess.intwoinvestigations，studentswereguidedintheuseofprediction，individualplanning，peerdiscussions，andpost-listeningreflections.bothbeginner-levelelementaryschoolstudents（vandergrift，2002）andbeginner-leveluniversitystudentsoffrench（vandergrift，2003b）exposedtosuchanapproachfounditmotivatingtolearntounderstandrapid，authentic-typetextsandrespondedoverwhelminglyinfavorofthisapproach.studentscommentedonthepowerofpredictionsforsuccessfullistening，theimportanceofcollaborationwithapartnerformonitoring，andtheconfidence-buildingroleofthisapproachforenhancingtheirabilitytocomprehendoraltexts.vandergrift'ssequenceforguidedlisteningwasadoptedforteachingtertiary-levelchineseeslstudents;theytooreportedincreasedmotivation，confidence，andstrategyknowledge（liu&goh，2006）.

fromasocioculturalperspective，cross（2010）administeredasmall-scalestudyexploringmetacognitiveawarenessofl2listeninginjapan.twelvejapanesefemaleadultefllearnerswereputin6pairsandenrolledinfive90-minutelessons.ineachlesson，theparticipantsfollowedthepedagogicalcyclebasedonvandergrift（2007），i.e.，thefivestagesconsistedofprediction:firstlistening，secondlistening，verification，andreflection（p.199）.thepedagogicalcyclewasmodifiedtoincludeexplicitsharing，selecting，andreflectingonlisteningstrategiesbylearnersasamechanismforstimulatingtheirmetacognitiveawareness.unlikethestudiesbyvandergrift（2002&2003b），theparticipantsinthisstudydidnotreceiveanyinputfromtheresearcherthroughouttheresearch，butautonomouslycompletedthetasksequenceattheirownpaceguidedbyapromptsheet.thelisteningtextsusedinthestudywerebbcnewsvideotexts.eachofthefivelessonswasaudioandvideorecordedforsubsequenttranscriptionandanalysis.attheendofeachsession，learnersspent15minutesindividuallywritinginadiarytheirreflectionsonthepedagogicalcycle，newsvideotext，successesanddifficulties，workingwiththeirpartner，andwhattheyfelttheylearnedfromtheirpartnerinthelesson.

thestudyresultsofcross（2010）showedthatpeer-to-peerdialoguewasthecentralmechanismmediatingtheconstructionandco-constructionofmetacognitiveawareness，anditalsoactedastheprimaryunitofanalysis.thequalitativeandquantitativeanalysisofthesixpairs'dialoguesandcorrespondingdiaryentriesshowedthatthroughthedialoguestheytookpartinaspartofthestructuredpedagogicalcycle，theywereabletoexploitopportunitiestoenhancetheirl2metacognitivelisteningawareness.

2.3.2.3metacognitivelisteningstrategytrainingstudies

researchontheeffectsofmetacognitiveinstructionhasprovidedpreliminaryevidencethatperformance，confidence，andmotivationcanbeenhancedthroughclassroominstruction（e.g.，goh&yusnita，2006;vandergrift&tafaghodtari，2010）.

onecommonapproachtometacognitiveinstructioninlisteningisasequenceofactivitiesthatencourageplanning，monitoring，andevaluatingstrategiesusedwhenlisteningtoaselectedtext.chamot（1995）suggestedaprocedurewhereteachersmodelhowtheythemselvesusestrategieswhenlisteningtoatapeorwatchingavideowithnewinformation.beforelistening，theteacherwouldreadaloudaboutwhatheorshealreadyknowsaboutthetopicandwhatwordsonemightexpecttohear.afterlisteningtoashortsegmentofthetext，theteacherwouldreadaloudagain，describingthementalprocessesinvolvedduringlistening，commentingalsoonwhetherthepredictionshavebeenconfirmedorrejected.finally，theteacherevaluateshisorheruseofstrategiesfortheparticulartext.listeningtasksthatguidestudentsthroughtheprocessoflistening，i.e.，byengagingthemintheuseofprediction，monitoring，evaluating，andproblemsolving，canhelplearnersdevelopthemetacognitiveknowledgecriticaltothedevelopmentofself-regulatedlistening.

toexplorethebenefitsofmetacognitivelisteningtraining，goh&yusnita（2006）conductedasmall-scalestudywith10primaryschoolpupilsinsingapore.eightlisteninglessonswereconducted.eachlessonfollowedathree-stagesequence:listen，answer—reflect—report，anddiscuss.inanadditionallessonconductedtheweekafterthelastlisteninglesson，eachpupilwroteashortreflectionontheirlisteningabilityattheendoftheeightsessionssoastoconsolidatetheirmetacognitiveknowledgeaboutthelisteningprocess.toassessthevalueofmetacognitiveinstruction，theresearchersalsocomparedthepupils'listeningtestscoresbeforeandaftertheintervention.theresultsledtheresearcherstoaconclusionthattheprocess-basedlessonshadtwobenefitsforyoungl2learners.firstly，thepupilsreportedanincreaseintheirconfidenceandmetacognitiveknowledge.morespecifically，theirstrategyknowledgehadincreased.secondly，therewasstrongindicationthatmetacognitiveinstructionhadcontributedtothepupils'improvementinlisteningtestscores.

o'bryan&hegelheimer（2009）investigatedthemetacognitivelisteningstrategyuseandawarenessoffourintermediatestudentsoveraone-semester-longesllisteningcourseatauniversityintheunitedstates.aseriesofdifferenttypesofclassroom-basedlisteningstrategiesweredesignedbytheinstructorsandtaughttothestudentsintheformofpodcastswhichfocusedoneitherdemonstratingorencouragingstudentstoreviewandpracticelisteningstrategies.atthebeginningandtheendofthelisteningcourse，themetacognitiveawarenesslisteningquestionnaire（vandergriftetal.，2006）wasadministeredasapretest-posttestinstrumenttoexploretheimpactoflisteningstrategyinstructionandtoassessthestudents'growingmetacognitiveawarenessofstrategies.verbalprotocols，semi-structuredinterviewsandstudentnoteswerealsousedasinstrumentstocollectdatafortheinvestigationofthestudents'listening.thestudyidentifiedstudents'useofsuchmetacognitivestrategiesasdouble-checkmonitoring，comprehensionmonitoring，problemidentificationandadvancedorganization.theinvestigationofdevelopmentofmetacognitiveawarenessthroughoutthesemesteridentifiedincreasedawarenessinproblemsolvingstrategiesandpersonknowledgebutnochangeintheawarenessofplanning-evaluationstrategiesusedbythestudents.contrarytotheresearchers'hypothesis，thestudyfoundthatthelowest-proficiencystudentdemonstratedanincreaseintheuseofmentaltranslationstrategiesafteraonesemester'slisteningcourse，aresultmatchingvandergrift's（1997b）finding.

thisstudysetafineexampleofusingmixedmethodapproachesforbothqualitativeandquantitativedatasoastoachieveinsightintostudents'listeningcomprehensionstrategiesandthedevelopmentofstudents'metacognitiveawarenessinlistening.whilethemalqprovidedaquantitativemeasure，additionalqualitativedatasuchasinterviewsandnoteshelpedtogiveafullerunderstandingofstudents'responsesonthemalq.however，thefindingsofthestudycannotbegeneralizedasthesampleconsistedofonlyfourstudents（duetoclassabsence，onlythreeparticipantscompletedthemalq）.

vandergrift&tafaghodtari（2010）carriedoutanempiricalstudytoinvestigatetheeffectsofametacognitive，process-basedapproachtoteaching106fsl（frenchasasecondlanguage）university-levelstudentsl2listeningoverasemester.theexperimentalgrouplistenedtotextsusingamethodologythatledlearnersthroughthemetacognitiveprocesses，whereasthesametextsweretaughttothecontrolgroupwithoutanyguidedattentiontolisteningprocesses.alisteningtestwasadministeredatthebeginningandtheendofthestudy，andthedevelopmentinthestudents'metacognitiveknowledgeaboutlisteningwasmeasuredusingthemalq（vandergriftetal.，2006）atthebeginning，middle，andendpointsofthestudy，immediatelyafteralisteningactivity.resultsdemonstratedthatthegroupreceivingthemetacognitiveinstructionsignificantlyoutperformedthecontrolgrouponthefinaltestoflisteningcomprehension，andthelessskilledlistenersintheexperimentalgroupmadegreatergainsthantheirmoreskilledpeersinthegroup.thestudyalsoprovidedevidenceofagrowingawarenessofthemetacognitiveprocessesunderlyingsuccessfull2listening.

arecentstudybycoskun（2010）investigatedtheeffectofmetacognitivestrategytrainingonthelisteningperformanceoffortybeginning-levelstudentsatapreparatoryschoolofaturkishuniversity.thestudentsweredividedintoanexperimentalgroupandacontrolgroup（twentystudentsineachgroup）.eachlisteningtaskintheexperimentalgroupfollowedthe“callastrategytrainingmodel”（chamot&o'malley，1994），i.e.，preparation，presentation，practice，evaluationandexpansion.themetacognitivestrategiesembeddedinthelisteninginstructionincludedplanning，monitoring，evaluationandproblemidentificationstrategies.asastrategytraininginstrument，themalqdesignedbyvandergriftetal.（2006）wasutilizedtokeepthestudents'metacognitivestrategyawarenessfreshthroughoutthetrainingandtohelpthemtouse，identifyanddeveloplearningstrategiesinasystematicway.twolisteningcomprehensiontestswereadministeredatthebeginningandendofthetrainingasthepre-testandposttest.bothtestsweredesignedtobesimilartothelisteningactivitiesinwhichthestrategytrainingwasembedded.thefirstpartofthetestswasguessingaboutthemaintopicofthetextafterlisteningtoonlythebeginningoftherecording.thesecondpartofthetestsrequiredthestudentstolistentotheentiretextandanswersomerelatedmultiplechoicequestions.resultsshowedasignificantdifferenceintheposttestsoresinfavoroftheexperimentalgroup.coskunthusconcludedthatthemetacognitivestrategytrainingfacilitatedl2listeningcomprehension.

thoughthelasttwostudiesreviewedaboveinvolvedlisteningcomprehensiontestsandthemetacognitiveawarenesslisteningquestionnaire（malq），noattemptwasmadetoinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenstudents'listeningproficiencyandtheirmetacognitivelisteningawareness.totheauthor'sknowledge，therehasbeennostudycarriedouttodateinvestigatingtherelationshipbetweenlearners'listeningproficiencyandtheirmetacognitivelisteningawareness，inspitethemalqcouldbeutilizedinthisway.

findingsfromabovethestudieshaveindicatedthatmetacognitiveinstructioninlisteningcanbebeneficial.goh（2008）summarizedthebenefitsofmetacognitiveinstructioninthefollowingways:

1.itimprovesaffectinlistening，helpinglearnerstobemoreconfident，moremotivatedandlessanxious;

2.ithasapositiveeffectonlisteningperformance;and

3.weaklistenerspotentiallybenefitthegreatestfromit.（p.196）

thequalitativestudiesreviewedabovepointtothepromiseofastrategy-basedapproachtoteachingl2listening.althoughtheresultsfromthesestudieshavebeenencouraging，mostofthestudiesinvolvedverysmallsamples.exceptforvandergrift&tafaghodtari'sstudyin2010，thesamplesinmostofthestudieswereunder20.thustheirresultsarenotgeneralizable.

anotherissueishowtobestutilizethemalq.besidesusingitasatooltodescribeorassesschangesinlearnermetacognitionresultingfrominstruction（asino'bryan&hegelheimer，2009;vandergrift&tafaghodtari，2010;andcoskun，2010），quantitativedatacollectedfromthemalqcanbecorrelatedwiththeparticipants'listeningtestscores.bypresentingcorrelationsbetweenlisteningproficiencyandmetacognitiveawareness，studiesinthisareacanexaminetherelationshipbetweendifferentlisteningstrategiesandlisteningcomprehension，whichisapurposeofthepresentresearch.

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