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2 2 1 Listening Comprehension and Listening Processes（第1页）

2.2.1listeningcomprehensionandlisteningprocesses

listeningcomprehensionisanimportantlanguageskill.languagelearnerswanttounderstandtargetlanguage（l2）speakersandtheywanttobeabletoaccesstherichvarietyofauralandvisualtextsavailabletodayviaallkindsofmedia.furthermore，listeningcomprehensionisperhapsthemostessentialskillforsecondforeignlanguagelearning，andthedevelopmentofl2listeningskillshasabeneficialimpactonthedevelopmentofotherskills（e.g.vandergrift，2008）.inordertoresearchlisteningcomprehension，itisnecessarytofirstunderstandthedefinitionoflisteningandlisteningprocesses.

2.2.1.1definitionoflisteningcomprehension

listening，beinganinvisiblementalprocess，isdifficulttodescribe，forlistenersmustdiscriminatebetweensounds，understandvocabularyandgrammaticalstructures，andinterpretstressandintentionwithintheimmediateutterance.listeningwascommonlyviewedasareceptivelanguageskillinwhichlistenerspassivelyassimilatedthemessagestheygotfromoralinput，butinfactitinvolvesamorecomplexprocess.inthelasttwodecades，listeninghasbeenfoundtoplayanimportantroleinlanguageacquisitionandhasthusbeendescribedasan“interactive，interpretiveprocessinwhichlistenersengageinadynamicconstructionofmeaning”（murphy，1991，p.56）.listeninginvolveslinguisticknowledge，backgroundknowledge，andmeaningconstruction.

rost（2011，p.2）defineslistening，initsbroadestsense，asaprocessofreceivingwhatthespeakeractuallysays（receptiveorientation）;constructingandrepresentingmeaning（constructiveorientation）;negotiatingmeaningwiththespeakerandresponding（collaborativeorientation）;and，creatingmeaningthroughinvolvement，imaginationandempathy（transformativeorientation）.

2.2.1.2listeningprocesses

oraltextsexistinrealtimeandneedtobeprocessedquickly;whenanoraltextisover，onlyamentalrepresentationremains.asaresultofthis，listeningistheleastexplicitofthefourlanguageskillsandthemostdifficultskilltolearn.

listeninginvolvesphysiologicalandcognitiveprocessesatdifferentlevels（field，2002;lynch，2002;rost，2011）.severaltheorieshavebeenadvancedtoaccountforlisteningprocesses，withtwobeingparticularlyinfluentialonresearch.

anderson（1983&1995）proposedacognitiveframeworkpresentinglisteningasathree-stageprocessofperceptualprocessing，parsing，andutilization.intheperceptualprocessingphase，attentionisfocusedentirelyonthetext，andphonemesaresegmentedfromthespeechstream（1995，p.137）.therefore，suchlisteningstrategiesas“selectiveattention”and“directedattention”arecrucialinthisstage（vandergrift，2003a）.intheparsingstage，meaningrepresentationsareformedfromwordsandphrasesbymatchingthemwithlinguisticinformationstoredinthelistener'slong-termmemorytoconstructmeaningmentalrepresentations.“grouping”and“inferencing”strategiesaredominantintheparsingstage.andfinallyintheutilizationphase，informationcollectedfromtheprevioustwostagesislinkedwiththeschema—thepreviousknowledgeofthelistener.asafactorrelatedtothepresentstudy，schemaisfurtherreviewedlaterinthischapter.listenersusetheirpriorknowledgetoaidcomprehensionandrecall.atthisstage，“elaboration”strategyisacrucialstrategy（vandergrift，2003a）.

thismodelhastheadvantagethatitprovidesrecognizablestagesintheprocessoflistening，andthusfacilitatesresearchintoeachofthestages（asino'malley，chamot，&kupper，1989）.nevertheless，thismodelpresentslisteningmerelyasalinearprocesswithutilizationasthefinalproductoftheprocess.asarguedbygraham&macaro（2008，p.748），“itisperfectlypossibleforlistenerstostartbyutilizingfragmentsofparsedtextandthendrawincorrectinferences.”

inlightoftheparallelprocessingcapacityofferedbyworkingmemory（mcclelland&rumelhart，1986），amoreconvincing，recursivemodelwassuggestedinwhichlistenersoperatewithinmorethanoneofthelisteningstages—aninteractivetop-downandbottom-upprocessingmodeloflistening.listenersuse“bottom-up”processeswhentheyuselinguisticknowledgeofsoundsandwordformsandbuilduptomorecomplexlexicalitemsandgrammaticalrelationshipstointerprettheinput.byusingbottom-upprocesses，listenersconstructmeaningbyaccretion，graduallycombiningincreasinglylargerunitsofmeaningfromthephoneme-leveluptodiscourse-levelfeatures.listenersalsouse“top-down”processeswhentheyemployfamiliaritywiththelisteningcontextandpriorknowledge（topic，genre，culture，andotherschemaknowledgeinlong-termmemory）tobuildaconceptualframeworkforcomprehension.listenersusecontentwordsandcontextualcluestoformhypothesesinanexploratorymanner.

listeningcomprehensionisnotjusttop-downorjustbottom-upprocessing，butaninteractiveandinterpretiveprocessinwhichlistenersusebothlinguisticknowledgeandpriorknowledgetounderstandmessages.inotherwords，alistenercomestoalisteningtaskwithtwosetsofresources:hisherownlinguisticandschematicknowledge（rumelhart，1980）andtheinformationcontainedintheactuallisteningtext.withinaninteractivemodel，alistenermightbeginbyactivatinghisherschemataasaresultofknowingthetopicofthetext，orofunderstandingafewwordsofthetext，andthusperceive，parseandmatchtheincomingspeechstreamwiththeelaborationsthatheshepreviouslyactivated（graham&macaro，2008）.

also，whiletheseprocessesinteractinsomeformofparalleldistributedprocessing，thedegreetowhichlistenersmayuseoneprocessmorethantheotherwilldependontheirknowledgeofthelanguage，familiaritywiththetopicorthepurposeforlistening.research（e.g.，mcclelland&rumelhart，1986;o'malley，chamot，&kupper，1989）onthesecognitiveprocessessuggeststhatl2listenersneedtolearnhowtousebothprocessestotheiradvantage，dependingontheirpurposeforlistening.forexample，listeningforgistinvolvesprimarilytop-downprocessing，whereaslisteningforspecificinformation，asinaweatherbroadcast，involvesprimarilybottom-upprocessingtocomprehendallthedetails.theaboveresearchhasalsoshownthatsuccessfulandlesssuccessfullistenersprocessinputquitedifferently.peterson（2001）statesthatlesssuccessfullistenerstendtorelyprimarilyoneithertop-downorbottom-upprocessingandspendagreatamountofconsciouseffortonperceptualactivity（e.g.，identifyingboundaries，recognizingmeaningfulsoundunits）solittleisleftoverforhigh-leveloperations（e.g.，relatingnewinformationtoinformationstoredinlong-termmemory）.incontrast，listenerswithhigher-proficiencyusebothtop-downandbottom-upprocessestounderstandoralinput，whichisalsoknownastheuseofmetacognitiveandcognitivelisteningstrategies，andistobefurtherdiscussedinthelastsectionofthischapter.

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